Add docs for closures.
This commit is contained in:
Stephen Chung
parent
3d6c83c6d8
commit
4878a69503
@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ smallvec = { version = "1.4.1", default-features = false }
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[features]
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#default = ["unchecked", "sync", "no_optimize", "no_float", "only_i32", "no_index", "no_object", "no_function", "no_module"]
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default = []
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plugins = []
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plugins = [] # custom plugins support
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unchecked = [] # unchecked arithmetic
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sync = [] # restrict to only types that implement Send + Sync
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no_optimize = [] # no script optimizer
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@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ This version adds:
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* Binding the `this` pointer in a function pointer `call`.
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* Anonymous functions (in Rust closure syntax). Simplifies creation of single-use ad-hoc functions.
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* Currying of function pointers.
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* Auto-currying of anonymous functions.
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* Closures - auto-currying of anonymous functions to capture shared variables from the external scope.
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* Capturing call scope via `func!(...)` syntax.
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New features
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@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ New features
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* Anonymous functions are supported in the syntax of a Rust closure, e.g. `|x, y, z| x + y - z`.
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* Custom syntax now works even without the `internals` feature.
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* Currying of function pointers is supported via the new `curry` keyword.
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* Automatic currying of anonymous functions to capture environment variables.
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* Automatic currying of anonymous functions to capture shared variables from the external scope.
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* Capturing of the calling scope for function call via the `func!(...)` syntax.
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* `Module::set_indexer_get_set_fn` is added as a shorthand of both `Module::set_indexer_get_fn` and `Module::set_indexer_set_fn`.
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* New `unicode-xid-ident` feature to allow [Unicode Standard Annex #31](http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr31/) for identifiers.
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@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ The Rhai Scripting Language
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4. [Function Pointers](language/fn-ptr.md)
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5. [Anonymous Functions](language/fn-anon.md)
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6. [Currying](language/fn-curry.md)
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7. [Capturing External Variables](language/fn-closure.md)
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7. [Closures](language/fn-closure.md)
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16. [Print and Debug](language/print-debug.md)
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17. [Modules](language/modules/index.md)
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1. [Export Variables, Functions and Sub-Modules](language/modules/export.md)
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@ -37,6 +37,8 @@ Dynamic
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* Dynamic dispatch via [function pointers] with additional support for [currying].
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* Closures via [automatic currying] with capturing shared variables from the external scope.
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* Some support for [object-oriented programming (OOP)][OOP].
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Safe
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@ -55,5 +55,6 @@ WARNING - NOT Real Closures
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Remember: anonymous functions, though having the same syntax as Rust _closures_, are themselves
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**not** real closures.
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In particular, they capture their execution environment via [automatic currying][capture],
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unless the [`no_closure`] feature is turned on.
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In particular, they capture their execution environment via [automatic currying]
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(disabled via [`no_closure`]).
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@ -16,6 +16,8 @@ it raises an evaluation error.
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It is possible, through a special syntax, to capture the calling scope - i.e. the scope
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that makes the function call - and access variables defined there.
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Capturing can be disabled via the [`no_closure`] feature.
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```rust
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fn foo(y) { // function accesses 'x' and 'y', but 'x' is not defined
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x += y; // 'x' is modified in this function
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@ -47,7 +49,7 @@ f.call!(41); // <- syntax error: capturing is not allowed in method-c
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No Mutations
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------------
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Variables in the calling scope are accessed as copies.
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Variables in the calling scope are captured as copies.
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Changes to them do not reflect back to the calling scope.
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Rhai functions remain _pure_ in the sense that they can never mutate their environment.
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@ -56,7 +58,10 @@ Rhai functions remain _pure_ in the sense that they can never mutate their envir
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Caveat Emptor
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-------------
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Functions relying on the calling scope is a _Very Bad Idea™_ because it makes code almost impossible
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to reason and maintain, as their behaviors are volatile and unpredictable.
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Functions relying on the calling scope is often a _Very Bad Idea™_ because it makes code
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almost impossible to reason and maintain, as their behaviors are volatile and unpredictable.
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This usage should be at the last resort.
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They behave more like macros that are expanded inline than actual function calls, thus the
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syntax is also similar to Rust's macro invocations.
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This usage should be at the last resort. YOU HAVE BEEN WARNED.
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@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
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Capture External Variables via Automatic Currying
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================================================
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Simulating Closures
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===================
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{{#include ../links.md}}
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Poor Man's Closures
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-------------------
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Capture External Variables via Automatic Currying
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------------------------------------------------
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Since [anonymous functions] de-sugar to standard function definitions, they retain all the behaviors of
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Rhai functions, including being _pure_, having no access to external variables.
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@ -15,13 +15,23 @@ is created.
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Variables that are accessible during the time the [anonymous function] is created can be captured,
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as long as they are not shadowed by local variables defined within the function's scope.
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The captured variables are automatically converted into reference-counted shared values.
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The captured variables are automatically converted into **reference-counted shared values**
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(`Rc<RefCell<Dynamic>>` in normal builds, `Arc<RwLock<Dynamic>>` in [`sync`] builds).
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Therefore, similar to closures in many languages, these captured shared values persist through
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reference counting, and may be read or modified even after the variables that hold them
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go out of scope and no longer exist.
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Use the `is_shared` function to check whether a particular value is a shared value.
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Automatic currying can be turned off via the [`no_closure`] feature.
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New Parameters For Captured Variables
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------------------------------------
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Actual Implementation
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---------------------
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In actual implementation, this de-sugars to:
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The actual implementation de-sugars to:
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1. Keeping track of what variables are accessed inside the anonymous function,
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@ -29,32 +39,148 @@ In actual implementation, this de-sugars to:
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3. The variable is added to the parameters list of the anonymous function, at the front.
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4. The variable is then turned into a reference-counted shared value.
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4. The variable is then converted into a **reference-counted shared value**.
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An [anonymous function] which captures an external variable is the only way to create a reference-counted shared value in Rhai.
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5. The shared value is then [curried][currying] into the [function pointer] itself, essentially carrying a reference to that shared value and inserting it into future calls of the function.
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Automatic currying can be turned off via the [`no_closure`] feature.
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This process is called _Automatic Currying_, and is the mechanism through which Rhai simulates normal closures.
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Examples
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--------
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```rust
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let x = 1;
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let x = 1; // a normal variable
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let f = |y| x + y; // variable 'x' is auto-curried (captured) into 'f'
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// 'x' is converted into a shared value
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x = 40; // 'x' can be changed
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x.is_shared() == true; // 'x' is now a shared value!
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x = 40; // changing 'x'...
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f.call(2) == 42; // the value of 'x' is 40 because 'x' is shared
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// The above de-sugars into this:
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fn anon$1001(x, y) { x + y } // parameter 'x' is inserted
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make_shared(x); // convert 'x' into a shared value
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make_shared(x); // convert variable 'x' into a shared value
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let f = Fn("anon$1001").curry(x); // shared 'x' is curried
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f.call(2) == 42;
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```
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Beware: Captured Variables are Truly Shared
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------------------------------------------
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The example below is a typical tutorial sample for many languages to illustrate the traps
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that may accompany capturing external scope variables in closures.
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It prints `9`, `9`, `9`, ... `9`, `9`, not `0`, `1`, `2`, ... `8`, `9`, because there is
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ever only one captured variable, and all ten closures capture the _same_ variable.
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```rust
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let funcs = [];
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for i in range(0, 10) {
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funcs.push(|| print(i)); // the for loop variable 'i' is captured
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}
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funcs.len() == 10; // 10 closures stored in the array
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funcs[0].type_of() == "Fn"; // make sure these are closures
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for f in funcs {
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f.call(); // all the references to 'i' are the same variable!
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}
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```
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Therefore - Be Careful to Prevent Data Races
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-------------------------------------------
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Rust does not have data races, but that doesn't mean Rhai doesn't.
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Avoid performing a method call on a captured shared variable (which essentially takes a
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mutable reference to the shared object) while using that same variable as a parameter
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in the method call - this is a sure-fire way to generate a data race error.
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If a shared value is used as the `this` pointer in a method call to a closure function,
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then the same shared value _must not_ be captured inside that function, or a data race
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will occur and the script will terminate with an error.
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```rust
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let x = 20;
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let f = |a| this += x + a; // 'x' is captured in this closure
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x.is_shared() == true; // now 'x' is shared
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x.call(f, 2); // <- error: data race detected on 'x'
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```
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Data Races in `sync` Builds Can Become Deadlocks
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-----------------------------------------------
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Under the [`sync`] feature, shared values are guarded with a `RwLock`, meaning that data race
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conditions no longer raise an error.
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Instead, they wait endlessly for the `RwLock` to be freed, and thus can become deadlocks.
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On the other hand, since the same thread (i.e. the [`Engine`] thread) that is holding the lock
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is attempting to read it again, this may also [panic](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.RwLock.html#panics-1)
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depending on the O/S.
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```rust
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let x = 20;
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let f = |a| this += x + a; // 'x' is captured in this closure
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// Under `sync`, the following may wait forever, or may panic,
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// because 'x' is locked as the `this` pointer but also accessed
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// via a captured shared value.
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x.call(f, 2);
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```
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TL;DR
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-----
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### Q: Why are closures implemented as automatic currying?
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In concept, a closure _closes_ over captured variables from the outer scope - that's why
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they are called _closures_. When this happen, a typical language implementation hoists
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those variables that are captured away from the stack frame and into heap-allocated storage.
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This is because those variables may be needed after the stack frame goes away.
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These heap-allocated captured variables only go away when all the closures that need them
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are finished with them. A garbage collector makes this trivial to implement - they are
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automatically collected as soon as all closures needing them are destroyed.
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In Rust, this can be done by reference counting instead, with the potential pitfall of creating
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reference loops that will prevent those variables from being deallocated forever.
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Rhai avoids this by clone-copying most data values, so reference loops are hard to create.
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Rhai does the hoisting of captured variables into the heap by converting those values
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into reference-counted locked values, also allocated on the heap. The process is identical.
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Closures are usually implemented as a data structure containing two items:
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1) A function pointer to the function body of the closure,
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2) A data structure containing references to the captured shared variables on the heap.
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Usually a language implementation passes the structure containing references to captured
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shared variables into the function pointer, the function body taking this data structure
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as an additional parameter.
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This is essentially what Rhai does, except that Rhai passes each variable individually
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as separate parameters to the function, instead of creating a structure and passing that
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structure as a single parameter. This is the only difference.
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Therefore, in most languages, essentially all closures are implemented as automatic currying of
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shared variables hoisted into the heap, automatically passing those variables as parameters into
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the function. Rhai just brings this directly up to the front.
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@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ curried.call(2) == 42; // <- de-sugars to 'func.call(21, 2)'
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Automatic Currying
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------------------
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[Anonymous functions] defined via a closure syntax _capture_ the _values_ of external variables
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[Anonymous functions] defined via a closure syntax _capture_ external variables
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that are not shadowed inside the function's scope.
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This is accomplished via [automatic currying].
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@ -5,22 +5,22 @@ Values and Types
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The following primitive types are supported natively:
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| Category | Equivalent Rust types | [`type_of()`] | `to_string()` |
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| --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | --------------------- | ----------------------- |
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| **Integer number** | `u8`, `i8`, `u16`, `i16`, <br/>`u32`, `i32` (default for [`only_i32`]),<br/>`u64`, `i64` _(default)_ | `"i32"`, `"u64"` etc. | `"42"`, `"123"` etc. |
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| **Floating-point number** (disabled with [`no_float`]) | `f32`, `f64` _(default)_ | `"f32"` or `"f64"` | `"123.4567"` etc. |
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| **Boolean value** | `bool` | `"bool"` | `"true"` or `"false"` |
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| **Unicode character** | `char` | `"char"` | `"A"`, `"x"` etc. |
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| **Immutable Unicode [string]** | `rhai::ImmutableString` (implemented as `Rc<String>` or `Arc<String>`) | `"string"` | `"hello"` etc. |
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| **[`Array`]** (disabled with [`no_index`]) | `rhai::Array` | `"array"` | `"[ ?, ?, ? ]"` |
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| **[Object map]** (disabled with [`no_object`]) | `rhai::Map` | `"map"` | `"#{ "a": 1, "b": 2 }"` |
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| **[Timestamp]** (implemented in the [`BasicTimePackage`][packages], disabled with [`no_std`]) | `std::time::Instant` ([`instant::Instant`] if [WASM] build) | `"timestamp"` | `"<timestamp>"` |
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| **[Function pointer]** | `rhai::FnPtr` | `Fn` | `"Fn(foo)"` |
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| **[`Dynamic`] value** (i.e. can be anything) | `rhai::Dynamic` | _the actual type_ | _actual value_ |
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| **Shared value** (a reference-counted, shared [`Dynamic`] value) | | _the actual type_ | _actual value_ |
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| **System integer** (current configuration) | `rhai::INT` (`i32` or `i64`) | `"i32"` or `"i64"` | `"42"`, `"123"` etc. |
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| **System floating-point** (current configuration, disabled with [`no_float`]) | `rhai::FLOAT` (`f32` or `f64`) | `"f32"` or `"f64"` | `"123.456"` etc. |
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| **Nothing/void/nil/null/Unit** (or whatever it is called) | `()` | `"()"` | `""` _(empty string)_ |
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| Category | Equivalent Rust types | [`type_of()`] | `to_string()` |
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| -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | --------------------- | ----------------------- |
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| **Integer number** | `u8`, `i8`, `u16`, `i16`, <br/>`u32`, `i32` (default for [`only_i32`]),<br/>`u64`, `i64` _(default)_ | `"i32"`, `"u64"` etc. | `"42"`, `"123"` etc. |
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| **Floating-point number** (disabled with [`no_float`]) | `f32`, `f64` _(default)_ | `"f32"` or `"f64"` | `"123.4567"` etc. |
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| **Boolean value** | `bool` | `"bool"` | `"true"` or `"false"` |
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| **Unicode character** | `char` | `"char"` | `"A"`, `"x"` etc. |
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| **Immutable Unicode [string]** | `rhai::ImmutableString` (implemented as `Rc<String>` or `Arc<String>`) | `"string"` | `"hello"` etc. |
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| **[`Array`]** (disabled with [`no_index`]) | `rhai::Array` | `"array"` | `"[ ?, ?, ? ]"` |
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| **[Object map]** (disabled with [`no_object`]) | `rhai::Map` | `"map"` | `"#{ "a": 1, "b": 2 }"` |
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| **[Timestamp]** (implemented in the [`BasicTimePackage`][packages], disabled with [`no_std`]) | `std::time::Instant` ([`instant::Instant`] if [WASM] build) | `"timestamp"` | `"<timestamp>"` |
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| **[Function pointer]** | `rhai::FnPtr` | `Fn` | `"Fn(foo)"` |
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| **[`Dynamic`] value** (i.e. can be anything) | `rhai::Dynamic` | _the actual type_ | _actual value_ |
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| **Shared value** (a reference-counted, shared [`Dynamic`] value, created via [automatic currying], disabled with [`no_closure`]) | | _the actual type_ | _actual value_ |
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| **System integer** (current configuration) | `rhai::INT` (`i32` or `i64`) | `"i32"` or `"i64"` | `"42"`, `"123"` etc. |
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| **System floating-point** (current configuration, disabled with [`no_float`]) | `rhai::FLOAT` (`f32` or `f64`) | `"f32"` or `"f64"` | `"123.456"` etc. |
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| **Nothing/void/nil/null/Unit** (or whatever it is called) | `()` | `"()"` | `""` _(empty string)_ |
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All types are treated strictly separate by Rhai, meaning that `i32` and `i64` and `u32` are completely different -
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they even cannot be added together. This is very similar to Rust.
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@ -79,8 +79,10 @@
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[function pointer]: {{rootUrl}}/language/fn-ptr.md
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[function pointers]: {{rootUrl}}/language/fn-ptr.md
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[currying]: {{rootUrl}}/language/fn-curry.md
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[capture]: {{rootUrl}}/language/fn-closure.md
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[capture]: {{rootUrl}}/language/fn-capture.md
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[automatic currying]: {{rootUrl}}/language/fn-closure.md
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[closure]: {{rootUrl}}/language/fn-closure.md
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[closures]: {{rootUrl}}/language/fn-closure.md
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[function namespace]: {{rootUrl}}/language/fn-namespaces.md
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[function namespaces]: {{rootUrl}}/language/fn-namespaces.md
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[anonymous function]: {{rootUrl}}/language/fn-anon.md
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@ -35,12 +35,12 @@ engine.register_raw_fn(
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// Therefore, get a '&mut' reference to the first argument _last_.
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// Alternatively, use `args.split_at_mut(1)` etc. to split the slice first.
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let y: i64 = *args[1].downcast_ref::<i64>() // get a reference to the second argument
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let y: i64 = *args[1].read_lock::<i64>() // get a reference to the second argument
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.unwrap(); // then copying it because it is a primary type
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let y: i64 = std::mem::take(args[1]).cast::<i64>(); // alternatively, directly 'consume' it
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let x: &mut i64 = args[0].downcast_mut::<i64>() // get a '&mut' reference to the
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let x: &mut i64 = args[0].write_lock::<i64>() // get a '&mut' reference to the
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.unwrap(); // first argument
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*x += y; // perform the action
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@ -84,12 +84,12 @@ Extract Arguments
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To extract an argument from the `args` parameter (`&mut [&mut Dynamic]`), use the following:
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| Argument type | Access (`n` = argument position) | Result |
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| ------------------------------ | -------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------- |
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| [Primary type][standard types] | `args[n].clone().cast::<T>()` | Copy of value. |
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| Custom type | `args[n].downcast_ref::<T>().unwrap()` | Immutable reference to value. |
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| Custom type (consumed) | `std::mem::take(args[n]).cast::<T>()` | The _consumed_ value.<br/>The original value becomes `()`. |
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| `this` object | `args[0].downcast_mut::<T>().unwrap()` | Mutable reference to value. |
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| Argument type | Access (`n` = argument position) | Result |
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| ------------------------------ | ------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------- |
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| [Primary type][standard types] | `args[n].clone().cast::<T>()` | Copy of value. |
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| Custom type | `args[n].read_lock::<T>().unwrap()` | Immutable reference to value. |
|
||||
| Custom type (consumed) | `std::mem::take(args[n]).cast::<T>()` | The _consumed_ value.<br/>The original value becomes `()`. |
|
||||
| `this` object | `args[0].write_lock::<T>().unwrap()` | Mutable reference to value. |
|
||||
|
||||
When there is a mutable reference to the `this` object (i.e. the first argument),
|
||||
there can be no other immutable references to `args`, otherwise the Rust borrow checker will complain.
|
||||
@ -156,5 +156,5 @@ let this_ptr = first[0].downcast_mut::<A>().unwrap();
|
||||
|
||||
// Immutable reference to the second value parameter
|
||||
// This can be mutable but there is no point because the parameter is passed by value
|
||||
let value = rest[0].downcast_ref::<B>().unwrap();
|
||||
let value_ref = rest[0].read_lock::<B>().unwrap();
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ more control over what a script can (or cannot) do.
|
||||
| `no_object` | Disable support for [custom types] and [object maps]. |
|
||||
| `no_function` | Disable script-defined [functions]. |
|
||||
| `no_module` | Disable loading external [modules]. |
|
||||
| `no_closure` | Disable [capturing][capture] external variables in [anonymous functions] to simulate _closures_, or [capturing the calling scope]({{rootUrl}}/language/fn-capture.md) in function calls. |
|
||||
| `no_closure` | Disable [capturing][automatic currying] external variables in [anonymous functions] to simulate _closures_, or [capturing the calling scope]({{rootUrl}}/language/fn-capture.md) in function calls. |
|
||||
| `no_std` | Build for `no-std` (implies `no_closure`). Notice that additional dependencies will be pulled in to replace `std` features. |
|
||||
| `serde` | Enable serialization/deserialization via `serde`. Notice that the [`serde`](https://crates.io/crates/serde) crate will be pulled in together with its dependencies. |
|
||||
| `internals` | Expose internal data structures (e.g. [`AST`] nodes). Beware that Rhai internals are volatile and may change from version to version. |
|
||||
|
||||
24
src/any.rs
24
src/any.rs
@ -283,9 +283,9 @@ impl Dynamic {
|
||||
|
||||
/// Get the TypeId of the value held by this `Dynamic`.
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// # Panics and Deadlocks When Value is Shared
|
||||
/// # Panics or Deadlocks When Value is Shared
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// Under the `sync` feature, this call may deadlock.
|
||||
/// Under the `sync` feature, this call may deadlock, or [panic](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.RwLock.html#panics-1).
|
||||
/// Otherwise, this call panics if the data is currently borrowed for write.
|
||||
pub fn type_id(&self) -> TypeId {
|
||||
match &self.0 {
|
||||
@ -313,9 +313,9 @@ impl Dynamic {
|
||||
|
||||
/// Get the name of the type of the value held by this `Dynamic`.
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// # Panics and Deadlocks When Value is Shared
|
||||
/// # Panics or Deadlocks When Value is Shared
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// Under the `sync` feature, this call may deadlock.
|
||||
/// Under the `sync` feature, this call may deadlock, or [panic](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.RwLock.html#panics-1).
|
||||
/// Otherwise, this call panics if the data is currently borrowed for write.
|
||||
pub fn type_name(&self) -> &'static str {
|
||||
match &self.0 {
|
||||
@ -621,9 +621,9 @@ impl Dynamic {
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// Returns `None` if types mismatched.
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// # Panics and Deadlocks
|
||||
/// # Panics or Deadlocks
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// Under the `sync` feature, this call may deadlock.
|
||||
/// Under the `sync` feature, this call may deadlock, or [panic](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.RwLock.html#panics-1).
|
||||
/// Otherwise, this call panics if the data is currently borrowed for write.
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// These normally shouldn't occur since most operations in Rhai is single-threaded.
|
||||
@ -744,12 +744,12 @@ impl Dynamic {
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// Returns `None` if types mismatched.
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// # Panics and Deadlocks
|
||||
/// # Panics or Deadlocks
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// Panics if the cast fails (e.g. the type of the actual value is not the
|
||||
/// same as the specified type).
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// Under the `sync` feature, this call may deadlock.
|
||||
/// Under the `sync` feature, this call may deadlock, or [panic](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.RwLock.html#panics-1).
|
||||
/// Otherwise, this call panics if the data is currently borrowed for write.
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// These normally shouldn't occur since most operations in Rhai is single-threaded.
|
||||
@ -817,9 +817,9 @@ impl Dynamic {
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// Returns `None` if the cast fails.
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// # Panics and Deadlocks When Value is Shared
|
||||
/// # Panics or Deadlocks When Value is Shared
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// Under the `sync` feature, this call may deadlock.
|
||||
/// Under the `sync` feature, this call may deadlock, or [panic](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.RwLock.html#panics-1).
|
||||
/// Otherwise, this call panics if the data is currently borrowed for write.
|
||||
#[inline(always)]
|
||||
pub fn read_lock<T: Variant + Clone>(&self) -> Option<DynamicReadLock<T>> {
|
||||
@ -852,9 +852,9 @@ impl Dynamic {
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// Returns `None` if the cast fails.
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// # Panics and Deadlocks When Value is Shared
|
||||
/// # Panics or Deadlocks When Value is Shared
|
||||
///
|
||||
/// Under the `sync` feature, this call may deadlock.
|
||||
/// Under the `sync` feature, this call may deadlock, or [panic](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.RwLock.html#panics-1).
|
||||
/// Otherwise, this call panics if the data is currently borrowed for write.
|
||||
#[inline(always)]
|
||||
pub fn write_lock<T: Variant + Clone>(&mut self) -> Option<DynamicWriteLock<T>> {
|
||||
|
||||
Loading…
Reference in New Issue
Block a user